This section reviews current space strategies and identifies the gaps addressed by the strategy proposed in this report. Firstly, the definition of a space strategy requires clarification. A space strategy is not restricted to space exploration but runs the entire gamut of present and future space activities. Currently, only space agencies are able to implement concrete strategies. Even for them, it is such a great task that inter-agency cooperation is often required.

This section first presents the global situation of the majority of the space players so that a better understanding of the specific interests of each country is reached. Next, the strategic plans of the four most influential space agencies--NASA, RSA, NASDA, and ESA--are reviewed in detail, to outline the strategic motivators for these space powers. Particular attention will be paid to the Human Exploration aspects of the space strategies, since that is the major focus of this report.

The Space Players

The most influential country involved in space activities at the present time is the United States of America (Hertzfeld, 1999 and ESA, 1999). For the USA, space has a large impact on defense, economy and science. Space allows for the global control of information, a key parameter for supremacy in the contemporary world. At the present time, about 75% of the public monies invested in space come from the USA. This gives the country an extraordinary advantage. A partnership occurs between government and private firms. The development of new technologies by public programs--military or civilian--benefits the private sector. A considerable effort is directed to reducing the cost of space systems. Through the concept of "Faster, Better, Cheaper" NASA is shifting its focus away from large scale, complex projects. Furthermore, NASA is moving more of the responsibility of day-to-day operations and management to industry. This allows the agency to emphasize research and development. By focusing more on R&D, the USA hopes to garner the means to maintaining its supremacy in space.

Russia has considerable experience and potential in space science and seeks to preserve this stronghold through international and industrial cooperation. Exploration and utilization of outer space plays an increasingly important role in the economic, scientific and social development of the country, and ensures its national security. Geographical features of Russia (terrestrial size, large extent of sea, land and air border, variable landscape, abundant natural resources and other factors) drive the necessary development and effective use of this space potential.

Canada is a partner in current international space programs, including the ISS. Canadian space activities are overseen by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). Working with a relatively limited budget, Canada has managed to position itself in niche areas including space robotics, telecommunications and remote sensing.

Japan has now acquired autonomy in all space activities and is an essential partner in a growing number of international space projects, including the study of the global environment and the International Space Station. Its industrial power allows it to act as a major player in commercial applications. The strength of Japanese space telecommunications and information technology industries allow Japan to compete in new application sectors.

China has made concerted efforts over decades and is an established space power. The country's size and needs justify an intensive use of space applications widening the economic returns of said activities (i.e. the commercialization of its launchers). China is currently developing a human space program of great interest to the world and space faring nations. Unfortunately, assessing the Chinese National Space Agency strategy remains difficult; accurate information is not available.

India invests vast amounts in space technologies and applications to satisfy its needs for development and autonomy. Program highlights have included launcher developments and the successful commercialization of the IRS Earth observation satellite pictures.

Brazil supports a program in space applications and launchers. Early work focused on telecommunication satellites for domestic applications; the program is now one of the more active players in the region.

The economic development of South America, like Asia, favors the rising needs of the people, especially in the field of telecommunications. The commercial demand for space products or services is greatly increasing in these regions. This will further South American investment in space systems.

Finally, Europe constitutes a major space power, with the European Space Agency coordinating the efforts of 14 European countries. In addition, several space agencies exist at the national level including CNES (French Space Agency), DLR (German Space agency) and the ASI (Italian Space Agency). The common strategy is coordinated by ESA and is described below.

Space Strategies

NASA divides its space strategy into four sections dubbed the 'Four Strategic Enterprises':

1. Space Science Enterprise
2. Earth Science Enterprise
3. Aeronautics and Space Technology Enterprise
4. Human Exploration and Development of Space Enterprise

The mission of the Space Science Enterprise is to solve the mysteries of the universe, explore the solar system; discover planets around other stars; search for life beyond Earth from origins to its destiny; and chart the evolution of the universe in order to understand its galaxies, stars, planets, and life. As a visible link to future human exploration beyond Earth orbit, Space Science Enterprise robotic missions will help develop the scientific knowledge required for these ventures. At the same time, the Space Science Enterprises will benefit from the opportunities human exploration offers in conducting scientific research that stretches beyond the capabilities of robotic systems.

NASA's Earth Science Enterprise, the Mission to Planet Earth is dedicated to understanding the Earth's environmental system and the effects of natural and human-induced changes on the global environment.

The mission of the Aerospace Technology Enterprise is to pioneer the identification, development, verification, transfer, application, and commercialization of high-payoff aeronautical and space transportation technologies.

Finally, the mission of the Human Exploration and Development of Space Enterprise (HEDS) is to open the space frontier by exploring and to expand the human experience into the far reaches of space. The Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS) serve as research platforms to pave the way for sustained human presence in space through critical research on human adaptation. The goals of the HEDS Enterprise are as follows:

• Prepare to conduct human missions of exploration to planetary and other bodies in the solar system (i.e. Mars Reference Mission)
• Use the space environment to expand scientific knowledge
• Provide safe and affordable human access to space, establish a human presence in space, and share that experience
• Enable the commercial development of space via information and technology sharing for the betterment of the all mankind

The HEDS Enterprise relies on the robotic missions of the Space Science Enterprise to provide extensive knowledge of the geology, environment, and resources of planetary bodies. The Space Science Enterprise missions will also demonstrate the feasibility of in situ resource utilization. HEDS will integrate and utilize the ISS, the Space Shuttle, and other international contributions. The Shuttle-Mir program demonstrates cooperation among space faring nations and the inter-working of various technical systems. The ISS will be the largest multinational science and engineering program in history and will vastly expand the human experience of living and working in space. This long-duration laboratory will provide unprecedented opportunities for science, technology, and commercial investigations in the space environment.

RSA (Russian Space Agency) is now severely affected by the economic situation in Russia. This agency, a leader in this field during the past decades, now has a restricted budget and has been obligated to center the directions of its space activities in with the federal space program are as follows . These requirements include:

• Providing independent access to space for Russia
• Solving social and economic problems
• Studying the Earth and doing fundamental scientific research
• Scientific, technical and technological developments contributing to the effectiveness of national economy
• Assuring the national security of the Russian federation

The tasks being addressed using space technologies at present include:

• Development of manned orbital flights and working through methods for new and high-purity materials production.
• Conduction of fundamental scientific research in astrophysics, planetology, solar physics and solar-terrestrial connections.
• Implementation of international agreements on the International Space Station (ISS) construction

Prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union, RSA had planned an extensive human exploration program for Mars. At the present time, RSA has chosen to enter into cooperative space agreements with many other space agencies to preserve its knowledge in the space field. It is responsible for organizing the fulfillment of Russian commitments on more than 20 intergovernmental space agreements concluded between the former USSR and foreign countries. Such an action has had, and will have, a considerable impact on space activities around the world.

For NASDA (National Space Development Agency), one focus is to have a well-balanced development of manned and unmanned space systems . Taking into account the current level of its technology and the scale of these developments, NASDA will continue to emphasize unmanned systems, developing their reliability and sophistication. Manned systems will be developed within the framework of international cooperation including participation in the International Space Station Project.

For the Japanese Agency, priority areas for the development of space are:

• Promotion of satellite observation and Earth science
• Promotion of space science and lunar exploration
• Consolidation of space activities
• The sophistication of satellite generic technology and utilization
• Development and operation of a new infrastructure for space

The second level objectives include astronomical observation and scientific research on the solar system, planets, and asteroids. Satellite exploration of near-Earth space and the solar system will be conducted in conjunction with astronomical observation on wider wavelengths parallel to observation from the Earth. Moon exploration is a major component of this strategy.

NASDA plans to accumulate scientific knowledge about the Moon, via lunar exploration, to evaluate the possibility of resource exploitation. As the Moon is the closest and most familiar celestial body, its exploration will be the first step in extending Japanese space activities beyond the Earth. It is important to accumulate scientific knowledge about the Moon by surveying its topography, geology, mineral composition and mass distribution. NASDA and the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), in cooperation with other agencies, will conduct an unmanned lunar exploration project including the development of a lunar orbiting satellite and a lunar landing vehicle. Project planning will take into account international aspects of the venture as well as progress in technology. Keeping other countries' lunar programs in mind, the National Astronomical Observatory, ISAS, and NASDA will jointly promote research and development of observation technology and lunar infrastructure technology. This will be done with an eye to future moon projects including an international observatory and a long-term human mission.

ESA (European Space Agency) has centered its efforts around three "challenges" (ESA, 1999). The short-term challenge is clear. Europe aims to consolidate and expand its overall space capability. With the Challenge of Independence Europe will seek to avoid reliance on other space powers. Immediate decisions are needed; the future waits for no man. With the Challenge of Planetary Management Europe seeks status as a major player in the global effort to preserve civilization on the planet. Humankind must find ingenious ways of using space resources and of expanding into the Solar System. With the Challenge of Beyond Europe seeks to play a leading role in developing a human expansion beyond low Earth orbit.

To answer these challenges, ESA has proposed 20 actions. Although detailing the particulars of each action is beyond the scope of this report, pertinent excerpts require mention and discussion. An Innovative Space Station Utilization strategy identifies technological areas of opportunity for experimentation. These areas include energy transfer in space, and flight technology for long duration missions. These will be tested and qualified on the Space Station. The Telepresence Demonstration Project will seek to establish a European robotic presence on the Moon, in preparation for a future extraterrestrial outpost. The strategy advocates:

• Development of human-like exploratory capabilities for tele-operated robotics based on micro-miniaturization as key technologies for a broad range of applications
   
• Demonstrations of these technologies on the Moon during exploration, construction and maintenance of facilities such as telescopes and manufacturing facilities
   
• Establishment of a permanent presence on the Moon, in preparation for future industrialization

The European Lunar Initiative aims at initiating leadership in a worldwide effort toward a new international lunar exploration program. In 1994, ESA proposed a four-phase program leading to the establishment of an outpost on the Moon. Since then, considerable advances have been made in lunar scientific knowledge. This program must remain current and ESA should continue its push toward a worldwide lunar effort involving all space powers.

Commercial applications in space are also addressed. Actions propose assessing the economic viability of collecting solar energy on the Earth, in space and on the Moon, as well as asteroid mining. Exploitation of near-Earth objects for precious metals, semi-conductors, and construction and propulsion resources in near-Earth promises valuable economic returns.

Finally, the Groupe de Reflexion report in 1997 (DeVos, 1999) summarizes the ESA/European position on Human Mars exploration: they advocate an ESA response to the current NASA initiatives.

Synthesis

Looking at present space strategies from around the globe, human exploration remains a driver in major players' strategies. It also appears that the task is great enough to require international cooperation for an exploration program to materialize. Paradoxically, all agencies want to develop their autonomy and have independent capabilities. The global strategies focus on the ISS and the Moon in the longer term. The exploration of the Moon will be done in two phases: first robotic missions and then human settlements. The long-term mission will be the human exploration of other planetary bodies.

It is clear that at the present time, international cooperation, though growing, is still limited among the industrialized nations. China, which is a major space power, and other, developing countries are not often taken into account in the effort toward human exploration. This lack of international cooperation leads to the inefficient use of precious resources. Furthermore, unfocused and overlapping space strategies result in a poor understanding of the space effort by the general populace, and this dampens public interest. Public outreach is poorly addressed by several agencies and there is no global strategy for raising public support toward space exploration. What this project proposes is a single strategy with the goal of filling the gaps of the current space strategies so that international cooperation will be stimulated and public interest and support for space programs will grow.

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